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Contents List of contributors xi About the author xiii Preface xv List of abbreviations and symbols xvii 1 Introduction to concrete chemistry 1 Maher Al-Jabari 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Concrete as a composite material 2 1.2.1 Concrete binder 3 1.2.2 Mixing water 6 1.2.3 Aggregates 9 1.3 Cement hydration chemistry 10 1.3.1 Stoichiometry of hydration reactions 11 1.3.2 Kinetics and heat of hydration reactions 15 1.4 Pozzolanic reactions 22 1.5 Admixtures and pozzolanic materials 23 1.5.1 Supplementary cementitious materials 24 1.5.2 Chemical admixtures 29 1.6 Durability problems related to concrete chemistry 31 References 33 2 Concrete porosity and transport processes 37 Maher Al-Jabari 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Concrete structure and porosity 37 2.3 Structure of entrapped and entrained air voids 44 2.4 Concrete permeability 45 2.4.1 Effect of pressure on the rate of water permeation 50 2.5 Transport characteristics of concrete 51 2.5.1 Thermal characteristics of concrete 56 2.6 Fundamentals of transport processes in concrete 58 2.6.1 Fluid flow through concrete 59 2.6.2 Mass transfer through concrete 62 2.6.3 Heat transfer through concrete 64 References 66 3 Concrete durability problems: physicochemical and transport mechanisms 69 Maher Al-Jabari 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Concrete durability and structure sustainability 70 3.3 Water as the medium for concrete durability problems 72 3.4 Fundamental mechanisms of concrete durability 75 3.5 Physical mechanisms of concrete deterioration 78 3.5.1 Mechanical actions of surface deterioration 78 3.5.2 Concrete deterioration due to freezing and thawing cycles 80 3.5.3 Shrinkage deterioration 82 3.6 Chemical mechanisms of concrete deterioration 86 3.6.1 Acid attack 86 3.6.2 Chloride attack and corrosion of embedded steel 90 3.6.3 Sulfate attack 93 3.6.4 Reactions with magnesium compounds 95 3.6.5 Alkali aggregate reactions 95 3.7 Biochemical mechanisms of concrete deterioration 99 3.8 Economic aspects of durability solutions 102 References 105 4 Materials selection and proportioning for watertight and durable concrete 109 Maher Al-Jabari, Radi Al-Rashed, Michael E. Ayers and Doug Clement 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 Materials selection and proportioning 110 4.3 Methods of concrete proportioning and mix design 112 4.4 Concrete types, grades, and classes 115 4.4.1 General concrete types 117 4.4.2 Pavement concrete 119 4.4.3 Mass concrete 121 4.5 Concrete mixture proportions 124 4.5.1 Sample prescribed proportions of concrete mixtures 125 4.6 Material mix designing of concrete exposure to environmental actions 127 4.6.1 Impact of concrete design on concrete permeability and durability 129 References 132 5 Physical and chemical interactions of water with surfaces and particles 135 Maher Al-Jabari and Maen Husein 5.1 Introduction 135 vi Contents 5.2 Introduction to water chemistry 136 5.3 Water adsorption into cementitious surfaces 137 5.3.1 Water adsorption isotherms 139 5.3.2 Water adsorption kinetics 140 5.4 Hydrophilicity 142 5.4.1 Water sorption, theoretical analysis 143 5.4.2 Swelling 145 5.5 Hydrophobicity 146 5.5.1 Parameters affecting hydrophobicity 149 5.5.2 Types and chemical structures of hydrophobic compounds 151 5.5.3 Reactions of hydrophobic materials with surfaces 152 5.6 Hygroscopicity 153 5.7 Icephobicity and ice adhesion 155 5.7.1 Quantification of icephobicity and ice adhesion 156 5.7.2 Mechanisms of ice adhesion 157 5.8 Nanotechnology in concrete industry 159 References 160 6 Fundamentals and categorizations of waterproofing technologies 165 Maher Al-Jabari 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Waterproofing concepts and approaches 166 6.3 Characterization approaches of waterproofing systems 170 6.4 Waterproofing compositions and structures 174 6.5 Dampproofing versus waterproofing 181 6.6 Vaporproofing versus breathable waterproofing systems 184 6.7 Selection of waterproofing materials and application requirements 187 6.8 Performance characteristic of waterproofing materials 189 6.9 General comparison of waterproofing systems 192 References 197 7 Concepts and types of integral waterproofing materials 199 Maher Al-Jabari 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Terminologies and categorizations of internal waterproofing approach 200 7.3 Types of direct integral waterproofing technologies 205 7.4 Setting and formation of integral waterproofing materials 207 7.5 Interactions of integral waterproofing materials with water 210 7.6 Levels of water resistance of integral waterproofing materials 211 7.7 Indirect integral waterproofing approach through concrete mix design 217 7.7.1 Integral waterproofing function by chemical admixtures 217 viiContents 7.7.2 Integral waterproofing function of supplementary cementitious materials 220 7.8 Performance characteristics and testing of integral waterproofing materials 225 References 242 8 Hydrophobic integral dampproofing materials 247 Maher Al-Jabari 8.1 Introduction 247 8.2 Concepts of hydrophobic dampproofing materials 248 8.2.1 Antiicing and icephobicity of hydrophobic damproofing materials 252 8.3 Types of hydrophobic damproofing materials 253 8.4 Applications of hydrophobic dampproofing materials 257 8.5 Mechanism of hydrophobic dampproofing systems 259 8.5.1 The chemical setting of organosilicon compounds 261 8.5.2 Setting reactions of stearates and similar organic compounds 265 8.5.3 Setting of other hydrophobic systems 266 8.6 Requirements of hydrophobic dampproofing materials 266 8.6.1 Stability of hydrophobic dampproofing materials 267 8.7 Durability performance of hydrophobic dampproofing 270 8.7.1 Efficiency of water-repellency and de-wetting 270 8.7.2 Reduction in water absorption 272 8.7.3 Reducing chloride ion penetration and corrosion 273 8.7.4 Reducing carbonation 276 8.7.5 Enhancing concrete resistance against freezing and thawing and scaling 277 8.7.6 Strength parameters 279 References 279 9 Hydrophilic crystallization waterproofing 283 Maher Al-Jabari 9.1 Introduction 283 9.2 Waterproofing by pore blocking 284 9.2.1 Swelling behavior of hydrophilic crystalline gels 287 9.3 Types of hydrophilic waterproofing materials 290 9.3.1 Hydrophilic crystalline waterproofing solutions 290 9.3.2 Hydrophilic crystalline waterproofing powder admixtures 292 9.3.3 Other pore filling waterproofing materials 293 9.4 Applications of hydrophilic waterproofing materials 294 9.5 Crystallization reactions of hydrophilic waterproofing systems 296 9.5.1 Structure of hydrophilic crystallization waterproofing particles 299 viii Contents 9.5.2 Interaction with cement hydration 302 9.5.3 Self-healing mechanism 304 9.6 Durability performance of hydrophilic waterproofing 305 9.6.1 Performance investigation based on structural analysis 306 9.6.2 Reduction in water absorption and permeability by hydrophilic WP 308 9.6.3 Reducing chloride ion penetration and corrosion by hydrophilic waterproofing 310 9.6.4 Breathability and carbonation in concrete with hydrophilic waterproofing systems 313 9.6.5 Reducing concrete deterioration from freezing and thawing by hydrophilic waterproofing 315 9.6.6 Other durability and strength parameters 316 References 318 10 Dual crystallization waterproofing topical treatment 323 Maher Al-Jabari, Radi Al-Rashed and Michael E. Ayers 10.1 Introduction 323 10.2 Concepts of dual crystallization waterproofing 324 10.3 Application and penetration of the dual crystallization waterproofing 325 10.4 The dual-crystallization waterproofing engineered mechanisms 330 10.5 The dual-crystallization waterproofing engineered performance 337 10.5.1 Waterproofing efficiency 338 10.5.2 Dual-crystallization waterproofing engineered enhancement of concrete resistance against chloride ion penetration 342 10.5.3 Enhancement of concrete resistance against ASR 344 10.5.4 Enhancement of concrete resistance against cycles of freezing and thawing 347 10.5.5 Enhancement of concrete resistance against biological degradation by mold growth 350 10.5.6 Effects of dual-crystallization waterproofing engineered treated on the mechanical characteristics and serviceability of concrete 351 References 352 11 Multicrystallization waterproofing enhancer for concrete mixtures 357 Maher Al-Jabari, Radi Al-Rashed and Xinbao Yu 11.1 Introduction 357 11.2 Mechanism of waterproofing by multicrystallization enhancer 358 11.2.1 Enhancement of mechanical characteristics of concrete by multicrystallization 364 ixContents 11.3 Reducing porosity and permeability of concrete with multicrystallization enhancer 368 11.4 The role of multicrystallization enhancer in managing thermal effects in concrete 372 11.4.1 Managing thermal effects during concrete curing using multicrystallization enhancer 373 11.4.2 Enhancing concrete resistance to cycles of freezing and thawing using multicrystallization enhancer 377 11.5 Reducing chloride ion penetration in multicrystallization enhancer-dosed concrete 381 11.6 Enhancement of concrete durability against alkali
silica reactions by multicrystallization enhancer 382 References 388 12 Waterproofing coatings and membranes 393 Maher Al-Jabari 12.1 Introduction 393 12.2 Terminologies and categories of external waterproofing barriers 394 12.3 Types of materials for waterproofing barriers 399 12.3.1 Cementitious waterproofing coatings 399 12.3.2 Polymer-modified cementitious coatings and mortars 401 12.3.3 Polymeric barriers 402 12.3.3.1 Sheet systems 403 12.3.3.2 Liquid membranes systems 404 12.4 Applications of waterproofing barriers 406 12.4.1 Application of cementitious waterproofing coatings 408 12.4.2 Installation of polymeric waterproofing barriers 409 12.5 Mechanisms of waterproofing barriers 410 12.5.1 Bonding of external waterproofing barriers 416 12.6 Stability of external barriers 418 12.7 Durability performance of waterproofing barriers 421 12.7.1 Effectiveness of waterproofing 422 12.7.2 Effectiveness of waterproofing barriers in reducing chloride ion penetration and corrosion 428 12.7.3 Breathability and carbonation resistance of external waterproofing barriers 430 12.7.4 Enhancing concrete resistance against freezing and thawing and scaling 431 References 432 Index 437

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