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CHAPTER 9 Naphthenate and Carboxylate Soap Deposition.......................... 429 9.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 429 9.2 Naphthenic acids structure and occurrence in crude oil...................................... 429 9.3 Naphthenic acid equilibrium in oil-water systems .............................................. 431 9.4 Mechanism of formation of naphthenate and carboxylate soaps ........................ 433 9.5 Types of naphthenate and carboxylate soaps....................................................... 436 9.5.1 Sodium carboxylate.................................................................................. 436 9.5.2 Calcium naphthenates .............................................................................. 437 9.6 Factors affecting naphthenate and carboxylate soap formation and deposition....................................................................................................... 438 9.6.1 Effect of oil composition ......................................................................... 438 9.6.2 Effect of produced water composition .................................................... 440 9.6.3 Effect of pH.............................................................................................. 441 9.6.4 Effect of pressure ..................................................................................... 441 9.6.5 Effect of temperature ............................................................................... 442 9.6.6 Effect of water cut.................................................................................... 442 9.6.7 Mixing of incompatible streams .............................................................. 443 9.6.8 Effect of electrostatic forces .................................................................... 443 9.7 Recent advances in naphthenates and carboxylate soap research ....................... 443 9.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 443 References............................................................................................................. 444 CHAPTER 10 Biofouling............................................................................... 449 10.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 449 10.2 Microbial community in oil and gas fields.......................................................... 449 10.2.1 Sulfate-reducing bacteria ....................................................................... 451 10.2.2 Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria........................................................................ 453 10.2.3 Acid-producing bacteria......................................................................... 453 10.2.4 Iron- and manganese-oxidizing bacteria................................................ 453 10.2.5 Iron-reducing bacteria ............................................................................ 454 10.2.6 Methanogens........................................................................................... 455 10.2.7 Nitrate-reducing bacteria........................................................................ 455 10.2.8 Other types of bacteria........................................................................... 456 10.3 Biomineralization ................................................................................................. 456 10.3.1 Biocorrosion ........................................................................................... 459 10.3.2 Bioprecipitation ...................................................................................... 462 10.3.3 Carbonates biomineralization ................................................................ 463 10.3.4 Sulfides biomineralization ..................................................................... 466 10.3.5 Oxides biomineralization ....................................................................... 467 10.3.6 Sulfates biomineralizatioon.................................................................... 467 10.3.7 Factors affecting biomineralization ....................................................... 468 xiiiContents 10.4 Biomass fouling .................................................................................................... 468 10.4.1 Biofilm and slim layers.......................................................................... 469 10.4.2 Stages of biofilm formation ................................................................... 469 10.4.3 Properties of biofilms............................................................................. 471 10.4.4 Factors affecting biofilm formation....................................................... 474 10.5 Recent advances in biofouling research............................................................... 476 10.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 476 References............................................................................................................. 477 CHAPTER 11 Chemical Incompatibility Deposits (Pseudoscale)...................... 485 11.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 485 11.2 Treatment chemicals and treatment chemical formulations................................ 485 11.3 Treatment chemicals-fluids incompatibility ........................................................ 488 11.3.1 Chemical-chemical incompatibility pseudoscale .................................. 488 11.3.2 Chemical-produced fluids incompatibility pseudoscale........................ 490 11.4 Treatment chemicals-materials incompatibility................................................... 492 11.5 Treatment chemicals-process conditions incompatibility.................................... 494 11.6 Screening and testing of treatment chemicals compatibility............................... 494 11.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 498 References............................................................................................................. 498 CHAPTER 12 Flow Assurance Solids Prediction and Modeling ....................... 503 12.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 503 12.2 General terms........................................................................................................ 503 12.3 Fluid flow modeling ............................................................................................. 509 12.4 Chemical and geochemical reactions simulation................................................. 509 12.5 Reservoir simulation............................................................................................. 510 12.6 Mineral scale prediction ....................................................................................... 510 12.6.1 Basic principles of scale prediction....................................................... 510 12.6.2 Thermodynamic saturation and stability indices................................... 518 12.6.3 Industrial and academic scale prediction software packages ................................................................................................. 522 12.6.4 Scale prediction using artificial intelligence methods .......................... 527 12.6.5 Prediction of elemental sulfur deposition.............................................. 528 12.6.6 Recent advances in scale prediction ...................................................... 528 12.7 Gas hydrate prediction.......................................................................................... 529 12.7.1 Basic principles of gas hydrates prediction........................................... 529 12.7.2 Methods of predicting gas hydrates....................................................... 534 12.7.3 Examples of industrial gas hydrate prediction software ....................... 539 12.7.4 Recent advances in gas hydrate deposits prediction ............................. 541 xiv Contents 12.8 Wax prediction ..................................................................................................... 541 12.8.1 Basic principles ...................................................................................... 542 12.8.2 Wax precipitation and deposition models ............................................. 547 12.8.3 Examples of industrial wax deposition prediction software ................. 550 12.8.4 Recent advances in wax deposits prediction ......................................... 551 12.9 Asphaltene prediction ........................................................................................... 551 12.9.1 Basic principles ...................................................................................... 552 12.9.2 Examples of industrial asphaltene prediction software......................... 560 12.9.3 Recent advances in asphaltene deposit prediction ................................ 561 12.10 Naphthenate deposition prediction....................................................................... 561 12.10.1 Basic principles .................................................................................... 561 12.10.2 Naphthenate deposition models ........................................................... 562 12.10.3 Recent advances in naphthenate soaps prediction............................... 564 12.11 Biofouling prediction............................................................................................ 564 12.11.1 Basic principles .................................................................................... 565 12.11.2 Biocorrosion prediction models ........................................................... 565 12.11.3 Biofouling prediction models .............................................................. 565 12.11.4 Recent advances in biofouling prediction ........................................... 566 12.12 Summary ............................................................................................................... 566 References............................................................................................................. 566 CHAPTER 13 Monitoring of Flow Assurance Solids in Oil and Gas Fields ........................................................................ 579 13.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 579 13.2 Classification of flow assurance solids monitoring methods .............................. 580 13.2.1 Process parameters monitoring methods ............................................. 581 13.2.2 Conventional analytical methods......................................................... 589 13.2.3 Coupons and spools.............................................................................. 595 13.2.4 Pigging.................................................................................................. 598 13.2.5 Electrochemical methods ..................................................................... 600 13.2.6 Ultrasonic methods............................................................................... 602 13.2.7 Fiber optics methods ............................................................................ 603 13.2.8 Attenuated total reflectance ................................................................. 603 13.2.9 Graphene-based sensors ....................................................................... 604 13.2.10 Turbidity methods ................................................................................ 604 13.2.11 Borescope inspection ........................................................................... 604 13.2.12 Radioactive techniques......................................................................... 604 13.2.13 Radiography techniques ....................................................................... 609 13.2.14 Tomography ......................................................................................... 610 13.2.15 Biofouling monitoring.......................................................................... 612 xvContents 13.3 Recent updates and future advances .................................................................... 618 13.3.1 Improving current technology................................................................ 618 13.3.2 Application of fiber optics ..................................................................... 618 13.3.3 Improving ILI and robotic methods....................................................... 618 13.3.4 Using wireless sensors ........................................................................... 619 13.3.5 Smart installations .................................................................................. 619 13.3.6 Application of artificial intelligence...................................................... 620 13.4 Mineral scales monitoring .................................................................................... 621 13.4.1 Mineral scales monitoring strategies ..................................................... 621 13.4.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 623 13.5 Gas hydrates monitoring ...................................................................................... 623 13.5.1 Gas hydrates monitoring strategies........................................................ 623 13.5.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 624 13.6 Wax deposits monitoring...................................................................................... 626 13.6.1 Wax deposits monitoring strategies....................................................... 626 13.6.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 628 13.7 Asphaltenes monitoring........................................................................................ 629 13.7.1 Asphaltenes monitoring strategies ......................................................... 629 13.7.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 631 13.8 Naphthenate deposits monitoring......................................................................... 632 13.8.1 Naphthenate deposits monitoring strategies .......................................... 632 13.8.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 634 13.9 Biofouling monitoring .......................................................................................... 634 13.9.1 Biofouling monitoring strategies ........................................................... 634 13.9.2 Case studies ............................................................................................ 636 13.10 Summary ............................................................................................................... 636 References............................................................................................................. 637 CHAPTER 14 Flow Assurance Solids Chemical Analysis and Characterization ............................................................... 647 14.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 647 14.2 General sample analysis flow chart ..................................................................... 649 14.3 Solids sampling..................................................................................................... 650 14.3.1 Collecting the sample............................................................................. 650 14.3.2 Sample labeling, sample and process data required, and why these data are important ......................................................................... 654 14.4 Field examination of solid deposits ..................................................................... 655 14.5 Sample preparation ............................................................................................... 656 14.5.1 Hazard identification and exclusion ...................................................... 656 14.5.2 Initial preparation and screening ........................................................... 656 14.5.3 Sample fractionation and preparation.................................................... 658 xvi Contents 14.6 Sample analysis .................................................................................................... 661 14.6.1 Analysis methodology............................................................................ 661 14.6.2 Analysis techniques................................................................................ 667 14.7 Interpretation of data ............................................................................................ 673 14.7.1 Importance of interpretation of the data................................................ 673 14.7.2 The use of production system and process data during results interpretation .......................................................................................... 674 14.8 Results reporting and follow-up........................................................................... 675 14.9 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 675 14.10 Summary ............................................................................................................... 679 References............................................................................................................. 679 CHAPTER 15 Mineral scale management...................................................... 685 15.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 685 15.2 Mineral scales prevention..................................................................................... 685 15.2.1 Operational methods of scale prevention .............................................. 686 15.2.2 Chemical scale prevention ..................................................................... 691 15.2.3 Nonchemical scale prevention ............................................................... 727 15.3 Mineral scales removal......................................................................................... 732 15.3.1 Chemical scale removal ......................................................................... 732 15.3.2 Nonchemical scale removal ................................................................... 745 15.3.3 Tips for an efficient scale removal job.................................................. 747 15.4 Generic strategies to control mineral scales in oil and gas fields...................................................................................................................... 750 15.4.1 Risk assessment...................................................................................... 750 15.4.2 Selecting the proper control method...................................................... 751 15.4.3 Monitoring and assessment.................................................................... 753 15.5 Recent advances in scale management methods ................................................. 753 15.6 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 755 15.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 759 References............................................................................................................. 760 CHAPTER 16 Gas Hydrate Management ........................................................ 779 16.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 779 16.2 Gas hydrate prevention......................................................................................... 779 16.2.1 Operational gas hydrate prevention ....................................................... 779 16.2.2 Chemical prevention of gas hydrates .................................................... 795 16.2.3 Nonchemical gas hydrate prevention..................................................... 816 16.3 Gas hydrate blockage removal ............................................................................. 817 16.3.1 Operational gas hydrate plug removal................................................... 817 16.3.2 Chemical removal of hydrate plugs....................................................... 820 xviiContents 16.3.3 Nonchemical methods of removal of gas hydrate plugs....................... 821 16.3.4 Tips for efficient gas hydrate blockage removal................................... 822 16.4 Strategies for gas hydrates control ....................................................................... 824 16.4.1 Risk assessment...................................................................................... 824 16.4.2 Selecting the proper control method...................................................... 825 16.4.3 Monitoring and assessment.................................................................... 825 16.5 Recent advances in gas hydrates management methods ..................................... 825 16.6 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 826 16.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 829 References............................................................................................................. 829 CHAPTER 17 Wax Management ................................................................... 839 17.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 839 17.2 Wax deposit prevention methods ......................................................................... 839 17.2.1 Operational methods of wax deposit prevention................................... 839 17.2.2 Chemical prevention of wax deposition ................................................ 848 17.2.3 Nonchemical prevention of wax deposition .......................................... 869 17.3 Wax deposits removal .......................................................................................... 875 17.3.1 Chemical methods .................................................................................. 875 17.3.2 Nonchemical methods ............................................................................ 879 17.3.3 Tips for efficient wax deposit removal ................................................. 883 17.4 Wax control strategies and philosophies.............................................................. 886 17.4.1 Wax problem risk assessment................................................................ 886 17.4.2 Choosing the optimum control method ................................................. 887 17.4.3 Monitoring an assessment...................................................................... 887 17.5 Recent advances in wax deposit management methods ...................................... 888 17.6 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 890 17.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 891 References............................................................................................................. 891 CHAPTER 18 Asphaltene Management.......................................................... 903 18.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 903 18.2 Asphaltene deposition prevention ........................................................................ 903 18.2.1 Operational methods of asphaltene deposition prevention ................... 904 18.2.2 Chemical prevention of asphaltene deposition...................................... 908 18.2.3 Nonchemical prevention of asphaltene deposition................................ 924 18.3 Asphaltene deposits removal................................................................................ 926 18.3.1 Chemical asphaltene deposits removal.................................................. 927 18.3.2 Nonchemical asphaltene deposits removal............................................ 929 18.3.3 Tips for efficient asphaltene deposits removal jobs.............................. 931 xviii Contents 18.4 Asphaltene deposition control strategies and philosophies ................................. 932 18.4.1 Risk assessment...................................................................................... 932 18.4.2 Choosing the best management method ................................................ 933 18.4.3 Monitoring and assessment.................................................................... 934 18.5 Recent advances in asphaltene deposits management methods .......................... 936 18.6 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 936 18.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 936 References............................................................................................................. 937 CHAPTER 19 Naphthenate and Carboxylate Soap Management ...................... 949 19.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 949 19.2 Naphthenate and carboxylate soap prevention .................................................... 949 19.2.1 Operational methods of soap prevention ............................................... 950 19.2.2 Chemical prevention of naphthenate and carboxylate soaps ................ 954 19.3 Napthenate deposits removal................................................................................ 962 19.4 Strategies and philosophies to control naphthenate and carboxylate soaps........ 963 19.4.1 Risk assessment...................................................................................... 963 19.4.2 Choose proper control method............................................................... 964 19.4.3 Monitoring and assessment.................................................................... 964 19.5 Recent advances in naphthenate/carboxylate soap management methods.......... 964 19.6 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 966 19.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 966 References............................................................................................................. 967 CHAPTER 20 Biofouling Management ........................................................... 971 20.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 971 20.2 Operational methods............................................................................................. 971 20.2.1 System design and operating parameters optimization ......................... 971 20.2.2 Nutrition removal ................................................................................... 972 20.2.3 Coatings.................................................................................................. 973 20.2.4 Pigging.................................................................................................... 974 20.3 Chemical biofouling control................................................................................. 974 20.3.1 Biocides and biostats.............................................................................. 974 20.3.2 H 2 S scavengers....................................................................................... 990 20.3.3 Scale inhibitors and dispersants............................................................. 991 20.3.4 Corrosion inhibitors................................................................................ 991 20.4 Physical methods of controlling biofouling......................................................... 991 20.4.1 Irradiation with UV................................................................................ 991 20.4.2 Ultrasonic treatment ............................................................................... 992 20.4.3 Hydrodynamic cavitation treatment....................................................... 992 xixContents 20.4.4 Magnetic methods .................................................................................. 992 20.4.5 Electrical methods .................................................................................. 993 20.5 Biological methods of controlling MIC and biofouling ...................................... 993 20.6 Removing biofouling deposits.............................................................................. 994 20.7 Strategies and philosophies of controlling biofouling ......................................... 996 20.7.1 Fluids analysis ........................................................................................ 996 20.7.2 Pig returns and surface analysis............................................................. 996 20.7.3 Modeling and simulation ....................................................................... 996 20.7.4 Choosing the proper method of control................................................. 996 20.7.5 Monitoring and assessment.................................................................... 996 20.8 Recent advances in biofouling management ....................................................... 997 20.9 Case studies .......................................................................................................... 999 20.10 Summary ............................................................................................................... 999 References........................................................................................................... 1000 CHAPTER 21 Mechanical Removal of Flow Assurance Solids....................... 1007 21.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 1007 21.2 Pigging ................................................................................................................ 1008 21.2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1008 21.2.2 Purpose of pipeline pigging ................................................................. 1008 21.2.3 Types of pigs ........................................................................................ 1009 21.2.4 Piggable and unpiggable pipelines ...................................................... 1015 21.2.5 Pig stations ........................................................................................... 1019 21.2.6 Pigging operations................................................................................ 1022 21.3 Wellbore and production tubing cleaning tools................................................. 1025 21.3.1 Wireline and slickline tools ................................................................. 1025 21.3.2 Other downhole methods ..................................................................... 1026 21.4 Jets....................................................................................................................... 1027 21.5 Mills .................................................................................................................... 1031 21.6 Coiled tubing ...................................................................................................... 1033 21.7 Other methods..................................................................................................... 1034 21.8 Field application of mechanical methods for solids removal............................ 1035 21.9 Summary ............................................................................................................. 1037 References........................................................................................................... 1037 CHAPTER 22 Chemical Injection Systems ................................................... 1041 22.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 1041 22.2 Production treatment chemicals ......................................................................... 1041 22.3 Chemical pumps ................................................................................................. 1043 22.4 Chemical tanks ................................................................................................... 1045 xx Contents 22.5 Chemical transfer and injection lines................................................................. 1047 22.6 Other components............................................................................................... 1049 22.7 Control systems .................................................................................................. 1050 22.8 Chemical skids.................................................................................................... 1050 22.9 Recent advances in chemical injection systems ................................................ 1051 22.10 Summary ............................................................................................................. 1051 References........................................................................................................... 1051 CHAPTER 23 Environmental Impacts of Flow Assurance Solids and Their Management .......................................................... 1053 23.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 1053 23.2 Environmental laws and legislations.................................................................. 1053 23.3 Environmental risks associated with flow assurance solids .............................. 1055 23.3.1 Naturally occurring radioactive materials ........................................... 1056 23.3.2 Pyrophoric deposits .............................................................................. 1057 23.3.3 Deposits disposal.................................................................................. 1059 23.3.4 Climate change..................................................................................... 1059 23.3.5 Treating chemicals with environmental risks...................................... 1061 23.3.6 Other environmental impacts ............................................................... 1063 23.4 Environmental risks management ...................................................................... 1063 23.4.1 NORM scales management.................................................................. 1063 23.4.2 Deposits disposal management ............................................................ 1066 23.4.3 Produced water treatment and reuse.................................................... 1068 23.4.4 Environmentally friendly treating chemicals (green chemicals) ................................................................................. 1069 23.5 Summary ............................................................................................................. 1070 References........................................................................................................... 1070 Index ................................................................................................................................................ 1073

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