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Effective carbon rates 2018 : pricing carbon emissions through taxes and emissions trading - Original PDF

دانلود کتاب Effective carbon rates 2018 : pricing carbon emissions through taxes and emissions trading - Original PDF

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Pricing carbon emissions allows countries to smoothly steer their economies towards and along a carbon-neutral growth path. By putting a price on carbon emissions, countries can increase resource efficiency, boost investment in clean energy, develop and sell low- emission goods and services, and increase resilience to risks inherent in deep structural change. Failing to price carbon emissions now, increases the risk that the planet overheats, with average temperatures increasing by five or more degrees. Adaptation to such increases might be possible, but would likely be extremely costly. Decisive action to reduce the risk is by far the better option. Pricing carbon emissions is important for moving to carbon-neutral growth. This second edition of Effective Carbon Rates shows how 42 OECD and G20 countries, representing 80% of world emissions, price carbon emissions from energy use today, and how much progress has been made since 2012. Carbon prices are measured using the effective carbon rate (ECR). The ECR is the sum of three components: specific taxes on fossil fuels, carbon taxes and prices of tradable emission permits. All three components increase the price of high-carbon relative to low- and zero-carbon fuels, encouraging energy users to go for low- or zero-carbon options. In each of the 42 countries, the ECRs are measured for six economic sectors: industry, electricity generation, residential and commercial energy use, road transport, off-road transport, and agriculture and fisheries. The report discusses the change of ECRs by comparing pricing patterns in 2012, 2015 and estimates for 2018. The carbon pricing gap measures the difference between actual ECRs and benchmark rates. The report considers two benchmark rates: EUR 30, a low-end estimate of carbon costs today; and EUR 60, a midpoint estimate of the carbon costs in 2020 and a low-end estimate for 2030. The carbon pricing gap indicates the extent to which polluters do not pay for the damage from carbon emissions.

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While the aggregate carbon pricing gap is declining at a snail’s pace, there are reasons to be cheerful  The aggregate carbon pricing gap is declining at a snail’s pace. Using EUR 30 per tonne of CO2 as a benchmark, the gap for the 42 countries as a whole dropped from 83% in 2012 to 79.5% in 2015, and is estimated to reach 76.5% in 2018. Smooth and cost-effective decarbonisation requires the carbon pricing gap to close much faster.  New carbon pricing initiatives have the potential to significantly reduce the carbon pricing gap. Nation-wide emissions trading in China could lead to a significant drop of the global carbon pricing gap, to 63% in the early 2020s. Canada may nearly close its national carbon pricing gap through new carbon pricing efforts by that time.  Several countries, including France, India, Korea, Mexico, and the United Kingdom, shrank their carbon pricing gaps between 2012 and 2015. Korea implemented a national emissions trading system in 2015. France and Mexico reformed their taxes on energy use. The United Kingdom implemented a price floor for electricity sector emissions covered by the European Union Emissions Trading System. India reduced its carbon pricing gap by increasing excise duties on transport fuels. The carbon pricing gap varies widely, both across countries and across sectors within countries  At the country level, the carbon pricing gap ranged from 27% to 100% in 2015. A dozen of countries have carbon pricing gaps of about 40% or lower. Countries with a low gap tend to emit fewer emissions than countries that hardly price any carbon emissions. Low-gap countries also produce fewer emissions per unit of GDP.  The carbon pricing gap varies substantially across sectors. It exceeds 80% in electricity generation, in industry and in the residential and commercial sector. The gap is lowest in road transport, at 21%. Taxes on energy dominate the composition of effective carbon rates in all sectors except electricity generation  In road transport, agriculture and fisheries and household and commercial energy use, well over 90% of the effective carbon rates result from taxes. The composition is different in electricity generation, where permit prices contribute more than 80% of the effective carbon rate.

چکیده فارسی

 

در حالی که شکاف قیمت کل کربن با سرعت حلزون در حال کاهش است، دلایلی برای شاد بودن وجود دارد  شکاف قیمت کل کربن با سرعت حلزون در حال کاهش است. با استفاده از 30 یورو به ازای هر تن CO2 به عنوان معیار، شکاف برای 42 کشور به طور کلی از 83٪ در سال 2012 به 79.5٪ در سال 2015 کاهش یافت و تخمین زده می شود که در سال 2018 به 76.5٪ برسد. کربن زدایی صاف و مقرون به صرفه نیاز به این دارد. شکاف قیمت گذاری کربن بسیار سریعتر بسته می شود.  طرح های جدید قیمت گذاری کربن پتانسیل کاهش قابل توجه شکاف قیمت گذاری کربن را دارند. تجارت گازهای گلخانه ای در سراسر کشور در چین می تواند منجر به کاهش قابل توجه شکاف قیمت جهانی کربن به 63 درصد در اوایل دهه 2020 شود. تا آن زمان، کانادا ممکن است شکاف ملی قیمت‌گذاری کربن خود را از طریق تلاش‌های جدید قیمت‌گذاری کربن کاهش دهد. چندین کشور، از جمله فرانسه، هند، کره، مکزیک و بریتانیا، شکاف قیمت‌گذاری کربن خود را بین سال‌های 2012 و 2015 کاهش دادند. کره در سال 2015 یک سیستم ملی تجارت گازهای گلخانه‌ای را اجرا کرد. فرانسه و مکزیک مالیات خود را بر مصرف انرژی اصلاح کردند. بریتانیا کف قیمتی را برای انتشارات بخش برق تحت پوشش سیستم تجارت انتشار گازهای گلخانه ای اتحادیه اروپا اعمال کرد. هند شکاف قیمت کربن خود را با افزایش عوارض غیر مستقیم بر سوخت حمل و نقل کاهش داد. شکاف قیمت‌گذاری کربن به‌طور گسترده‌ای، هم در بین کشورها و هم در بخش‌های مختلف در کشورها متفاوت است.  در سطح کشور، شکاف قیمت‌گذاری کربن از 27 تا 100 درصد در سال 2015 متغیر بود. ده‌ها کشور دارای شکاف قیمت‌گذاری کربن حدود 40 درصد یا کمتر هستند. کشورهایی که فاصله کمی دارند نسبت به کشورهایی که به سختی انتشار کربن را قیمت گذاری می کنند، انتشار کمتری دارند. کشورهای با شکاف کم نیز انتشار کمتری را به ازای واحد تولید ناخالص داخلی تولید می کنند.  شکاف قیمت گذاری کربن به طور قابل ملاحظه ای در بخش های مختلف متفاوت است. در تولید برق، در صنعت و در بخش مسکونی و تجاری بیش از 80 درصد است. این شکاف در حمل و نقل جاده ای با 21 درصد کمتر است. مالیات بر انرژی بر ترکیب نرخ موثر کربن در همه بخش‌ها به جز تولید برق غالب است. این ترکیب در تولید برق متفاوت است، جایی که قیمت مجوز بیش از 80٪ نرخ کربن موثر را تشکیل می دهد.

 

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Author(s): coll.

Year: 2018

ISBN: 9789264305304,9264305300,9789264305717,9264305718,9789264305724,9264305726

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TABLE OF CONTENTS │ 5 EFFECTIVE CARBON RATES 2018 © OECD 2018 Table of contents Foreword ................................................................................................................................................ 3 Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................. 7 Main findings ....................................................................................................................................... 8 Implications ......................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 11 Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 17 References.......................................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2. Carbon pricing trends – Reasons to be cheerful............................................................ 19 The current state of carbon pricing: a white shade of blue ................................................................ 22 Carbon pricing trends: expanding coverage, persistently low rates ................................................... 24 The distribution of effective carbon rates is strongly skewed............................................................ 27 The carbon pricing gap ...................................................................................................................... 29 Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 35 References.......................................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 3. Carbon pricing in 2015 – Detailed analysis.................................................................... 39 Share of emissions priced and price levels across countries in 2015 ................................................. 40 Carbon pricing gap across countries in 2015 ..................................................................................... 54 Carbon pricing – a bigger picture ...................................................................................................... 57 Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 71 References.......................................................................................................................................... 71 A.1. Description of emissions trading systems used in the analysis .................................................. 76 A.2. Permit prices and ETS coverage ................................................................................................ 80 A.3. ETS-specific adjustments and assumptions ............................................................................... 82 Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 88 References.......................................................................................................................................... 88 Tables Table 2.1. Emissions coverage and permit price – assumptions for 2018 ............................................. 21 Table 2.2. Taxes dominate the composition of ECRs ........................................................................... 27 Table 2.3. Carbon pricing gap by sector................................................................................................ 34 Table 3.1. Proportion of emissions priced per tonne of CO2 by country ............................................... 42 Table 3.2. Emissions from electricity generation fall sharply with the introduction of a carbon price support ........................................................................................................................................... 43 Table 3.3. Proportion of emissions priced in the electricity sector per tonne of CO2 by country.......... 45 Table 3.4. Proportion of emissions priced in the industry sector per tonne of CO2 by country ............ 47 6 │ TABLE OF CONTENTS EFFECTIVE CARBON RATES 2018 © OECD 2018 Table 3.5. Proportion of emissions priced in the residential and commercial sector per tonne of CO2 by country ...................................................................................................................................... 49 Table 3.6. Proportion of emissions priced in the road sector per tonne of CO2 by country .................. 51 Table 3.7. Carbon pricing gap at EUR 30 in 2015 ................................................................................ 55 Table 3.8. Carbon pricing gap at EUR 60 in 2015 ................................................................................ 57 Annex Table 3.A.1. Proportion of emissions priced per tonne of CO2 by country ............................... 64 Annex Table 3.A.2. Proportion of emissions priced in the electricity sector per tonne of CO2 by country ........................................................................................................................................... 65 Annex Table 3.A.3. Proportion of emissions priced in the industry sector per tonne of CO2 by country ........................................................................................................................................... 66 Annex Table 3.A.4. Proportion of emissions priced in the residential and commercial sector per tonne of CO2 by country ................................................................................................................ 67 Annex Table 3.A.5. Proportion of emissions priced in the road transport sector per tonne of CO2 by country ........................................................................................................................................... 68 Annex Table 3.A.6. Carbon pricing gap at EUR 30 in 2015 ................................................................. 69 Annex Table 3.A.7. Carbon pricing gap at EUR 60 in 2015 ................................................................. 70 Table A.1. Description of emissions trading systems used in the analysis ........................................... 77 Table A.2. Permit prices and ETS coverage .......................................................................................... 81 Figures Figure 1.1. Components of effective carbon rates ................................................................................. 14 Figure 2.1 A cost-effective low-carbon transition requires higher carbon prices ................................. 22 Figure 2.2. Share of emissions from energy use priced above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 .................... 24 Figure 2.3. Estimated proportion of CO2 emissions priced at different price levels ............................. 25 Figure 2.4 Proportion of CO2 emission priced by sector ....................................................................... 26 Figure 2.5. Proportion of CO2 emissions from energy use subject to different levels of effective carbon rates in 42 OECD and G20 countries ................................................................................ 28 Figure 2.6. The carbon pricing gap ....................................................................................................... 30 Figure 3.1. Proportion of CO2 emissions priced at different price levels in 2015 ................................. 40 Figure 3.2. Estimates of marginal external costs and of fuel tax, France and United Kingdom, in EUR per litre of gasoline and diesel .............................................................................................. 53 Figure 3.3. Less populous countries have a smaller carbon pricing gap ............................................... 58 Figure 3.4. Countries with a low carbon pricing gap lead in decarbonising their economies ............... 59 Figure 3.5. Countries with a lower carbon pricing gap are more carbon efficient ................................ 60 Boxes Box 1.1. Why carbon pricing works ...................................................................................................... 13 Box 1.2. The effective carbon rate (ECR) ............................................................................................. 14 Box 2.1. The carbon pricing gap ........................................................................................................... 33 Box 3.1. External costs in road transport ..............................................................52

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