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Ebook details:
عنوان: Evolution (9781605356051) Douglas J. Futuyma, Mark Kirkpatrick
نویسنده: Books
ناشر: Sinauer Associates is an imprint of Oxford University Press; 4 edition (April 15, 2017)
زبان: English
شابک: 1605356050, 978-1605356051
حجم: 288 Mb
فرمت: Image pdf with ocr

Machine generated contents note: ch. 1 Evolutionary Biology -- "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution" -- What Is Evolution? Is It Fact or Theory? -- The Evolution of Evolutionary Biology -- Before Darwin -- Charles Darwin -- Darwin's evolutionary theory -- Evolutionary biology after Darwin -- The evolutionary synthesis -- Evolutionary biology since the synthesis -- Box 1A Fundamental Principles of Biological Evolution -- How Evolution Is Studied -- Philosophical Issues -- Ethics, religion, and evolution -- Summary -- ch. 2 The Tree of Life -- The Tree of Life, from Darwin to Today -- Box 2A Classification, Taxonomic Practice, and Nomenclature -- Phylogenetic Trees -- Inferring phylogenies: An introduction -- Variations on the Phylogenetic Theme -- Branches of a phylogenetic tree sometimes rejoin -- Not only organisms have "phylogenies" -- Phylogenetic Insights into Evolutionary History -- Inferring the history of character evolution Note continued: Estimating time of divergence -- Patterns of evolution -- Box 2B Evidence for Evolution -- Summary -- ch. 3 Natural Selection and Adaptation -- Adaptive Evolution Observed -- Natural Selection -- The meaning of natural selection -- Natural selection and chance -- The effective environment depends on the organism -- Levels of Selection -- Selfish genes and unselfish behaviors -- Selection of organisms and groups -- Species selection -- The Nature of Adaptations -- Selection of and selection for -- Recognizing adaptations -- Imperfections and Constraints -- Natural Selection and the Evolution of Diversity -- What Not To Expect of Natural Selection -- Summary -- ch. 4 Mutation and Variation -- The Machinery of Inheritance -- The Inheritance of Variation -- Gene mixing by segregation -- Gene mixing by recombination -- Gene mixing with asexual inheritance -- Mutation: The Ultimate Source of Variation -- Point mutations -- Structural mutations Note continued: Rates and Effects of Mutations -- Mutation rates -- Box 4A Estimating Mutation Rates -- Effects of mutations -- Germ line mutations and somatic mutations -- Is Mutation Random? -- Nongenetic Inheritance -- Summary -- ch. 5 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection -- Natural Selection and Evolution in Real Time -- Evolution by Selection and Inheritance -- Fitness: The Currency of Selection -- Positive Selection: The Spread of Beneficial Mutations -- Box 5A Evolution by Selection on a Single Locus -- The rate of adaptation -- Chance and adaptation: The probability that a beneficial mutation spreads -- Evolutionary Side Effects -- Hitchhiking: When one allele goes for a ride with another -- When Selection Preserves Variation -- Overdominance -- Other forms of balancing selection -- Selection That Favors the Most Common -- Underdominance: When heterozygotes suffer -- Positive frequency-dependent selection -- The Evolution of a Population's Mean Fitness Note continued: The fundamental theorem of natural selection and the adaptive landscape -- Deleterious Mutations -- A mutation-selection balance -- The mutation load -- Summary -- ch. 6 Phenotypic Evolution -- Genotypes and Phenotypes -- Fitness Functions Describe Selection on Quantitative Traits -- Measuring the Strength of Directional Selection -- Evolution by Directional Selection -- When genes interact: Dominance and epistasis -- Adaptation from standing genetic variation versus new mutations -- Can adaptation rescue species from extinction? -- Artificial Selection -- Correlated Traits -- Constraints and trade-offs -- The causes of genetic correlations -- Phenotypic Plasticity -- The Genetic Architecture of Quantitative Traits -- Quantitative trait loci -- The genetics of quantitative traits -- Summary -- ch. 7 Genetic Drift: Evolution at Random -- What Is Random Genetic Drift? -- The Genealogy of Genes -- How Strong Is Genetic Drift? Note continued: Populations that change in size -- Drift and Genetic Variation within Species -- Estimating population size -- Genetic Drift and Natural Selection -- Crossing an adaptive valley by drift -- The fate of beneficial mutations in large populations -- The Evolution of Differences among Species -- The neutral theory of molecular evolution -- Searching the Genes for Signatures of Adaptation -- Synonymous versus nonsynonymous differences -- The MK test -- Divergence among populations -- Summary -- ch. 8 Evolution in Space -- Patterns in Space -- Gene Flow -- How is gene flow measured? -- Genetic Divergence between Populations -- Gene Flow and Selection -- Tension zones -- Gene Flow and Drift -- Gene flow, local adaptation, and drift -- The Evolution of Dispersal -- The Evolution of Species' Ranges -- Summary -- ch. 9 Species and Speciation -- What Are Species? -- Box 9A Diagnosis of a New Species -- Reproductive Isolation -- Prezygotic barriers Note continued: Postzygotic barriers -- How fast does reproductive isolation evolve? -- The Causes of Speciation -- Box 9A Speciation in the Lab -- The Geography of Speciation -- Allopatric speciation -- Sympatric speciation -- Parapatric speciation -- The Genomics of Speciation -- Summary -- ch. 10 All About Sex -- What Are Females and Males? -- Sexual Selection -- Why are males sexually selected? -- Sexual selection by male-male competition -- Sexual selection by female choice -- Sexual selection in flowering plants -- Sex Ratios -- Why Sex? -- Advantages to sex in changing environments -- Selective interference favors sex and recombination -- Selfing and Outcrossing -- Summary -- ch. 11 How to Be Fit -- Life History Traits as Components of Fitness -- Costs of reproduction -- Fitness in age-structured populations -- Senescence -- Evolution of the Population Growth Rate and Density -- Diverse life histories -- Number of offspring Note continued: Life histories and mating strategies -- Specialists and Generalists -- Advantages of specialization -- Specialization without trade-offs -- Experiments on niche evolution -- Summary -- ch. 12 Cooperation and Conflict -- The Costs and Benefits of Interacting -- Social Interactions and Cooperation -- Cooperation among Unrelated Individuals -- Reciprocity -- Box 12A Evolutionarily Stable Strategies -- Shared Genes and the Evolution of Altruism -- Box 12B Calculating Relatedness -- Box 12C Altruistic Mating Displays in Turkeys -- Spite -- Conflict and Cooperation in Close Quarters: The Family -- Conflict between mates -- Murder in the family -- Parent-offspring conflict -- Eusocial animals: The ultimate families -- Levels of Selection -- Selfish DNA -- Selfish mitochondria -- Group selection -- Cooperation and Major Evolutionary Transitions -- Summary -- ch. 13 Interactions among Species -- Coevolution and Interactions among Species Note continued: The Evolution of Enemies and Victims -- Aposematism and mimicry -- Plants and herbivores -- Parasite-host interactions and infectious disease -- Mutualisms -- The Evolution of Competitive Interactions -- Evolution and Community Structure -- Summary -- ch. 14 The Evolution of Genes and Genomes -- The Birth of a Gene -- Gene families -- The Death of a Gene -- Evolution of Protein-Coding Genes -- Evolution of coding regions by genetic drift -- Evolution of coding regions by positive selection -- Evolution of Gene Expression -- Gene Structure -- Chromosome Evolution -- Fissions, fusions, and the evolution of chromosome number -- Inversions and the evolution of chromosome structure -- Evolution of Genome Size and Content -- Genomes large and small -- Genetic parasites and transposable elements -- Routes to the evolution of the smallest and largest genomes -- Summary -- ch. 15 Evolution and Development -- Comparative Development and Evolution Note continued: Gene Regulation -- Box 15A Some Methods in Developmental Genetics -- Hox genes and the genetic toolkit -- Developmental-Genetic Bases of Phenotypic Evolution -- Evolution by cis-regulatory mutations -- Evolution by trans-regulatory mutations -- Overview: The genetics and development of phenotypic evolution -- Evolvability and Developmental Pathways -- Constraints on Adaptive Evolution -- Phenotypic Plasticity and Canalization -- Does phenotypic plasticity contribute to evolution? -- Summary -- ch. 16 Phylogeny: The Unity and Diversity of Life -- Inferring Phylogenies -- Why estimating phylogenies can be hard -- Methods for estimating phylogenies -- Box 16A Estimating Trees with Likelihood -- How Do We Use Phylogenies? -- Dating evolutionary events -- Discovering the history of genes and cultures -- Reconstructing ancestors -- Studying adaptations: The comparative method -- Classification -- Summary -- ch. 17 The History of Life Note continued: Some Geological Fundamentals -- The fossil record -- Before Life Began -- The Emergence of Life -- Precambrian Life -- The Cambrian Explosion and the Origins of Animal Diversity -- Paleozoic Life -- The colonization of land -- Paleozoic life on land -- The end-Permian mass extinction -- Mesozoic Life -- The Cenozoic Era -- The modern world takes shape -- The adaptive radiation of mammals -- Pleistocene events -- Summary -- ch. 18 The Geography of Evolution -- Biogeographic Evidence for Evolution -- Major Patterns of Distribution -- Historical factors affecting geographic distributions -- Historical Explanations of Geographic Distributions -- Vicariance -- Dispersal -- Phylogeography -- Geographic Range Limits: Ecology and Evolution -- Geographic Patterns of Diversity -- Summary -- ch. 19 The Evolution of Biological Diversity -- Estimating and Modeling Changes in Biological Diversity -- Studying diversity in the fossil record Note continued: Diversity through the Phanerozoic -- Rates of origination and extinction -- Mass extinctions -- Phylogenetic Studies of Diversity -- The shapes of phylogenies -- Does Species Diversity Reach Equilibrium? -- Summary -- ch. 20 Macroevolution: Evolution above the Species Level -- The Origin of Major New Forms of Life -- The origin of mammals -- Gradualism and Saltation -- The Evolution of Novelty -- Incipient and novel features: Permissive conditions and natural selection -- Complex characteristics -- Homology and the emergence of novel characters -- From Microevolution to Macroevolution -- Rates of evolution -- Gradualism and punctuated equilibria -- Speciation and phenotypic evolution -- Trends, Predictability, and Progress -- Trends: Kinds and causes -- Are there major trends in the history of life? -- Predictability and contingency in evolution -- The question of progress -- Summary -- ch. 21 The Evolutionary Story of Homo sapiens Note continued: Where Did We Come From? -- Our closest living relatives -- How humans differ from other apes -- Our ancestry: Hominins through time -- The Arrival of Homo sapiens -- The human history of hybridization -- The diversity of human populations -- Brain and Language -- Diet and Agriculture: A Revolution in Our World -- Box 21A Domesticated Plants and Animals -- Natural Selection, Past and Present -- Our genetic loads -- Natural selection and evolution in real time -- Evolutionary mismatches -- The Evolution of Culture -- Summary -- ch. 22 Evolution and Society -- Box 22A Refuting Antievolutionary Arguments -- Creationism and Science -- Creationism -- The nature of science -- The Evidence for Evolution -- The fossil record -- Phylogenetic and comparative studies -- Genes and genomes -- Biogeography -- Failures of the argument from design -- Evolution, and its mechanisms, observed -- The Uses and Implications of Evolutionary Science Note continued: Evolution by natural selection: A broad and flexible concept -- Practical applications of evolutionary science -- Using organisms' adaptations -- Agriculture and natural resources -- Conservation -- Box 22B The Current Extinction Crisis -- Health and medicine -- Evolution and Human Behavior -- Variation in cognitive and behavioral traits -- Human behavior: Evolution and culture -- Understanding nature and humanity -- Summary -- I.Introduction -- II.Subdividing Personal Property -- A.Tangible and Intangible Assets -- B.Dividing Intangibles -- i.Documentary Intangibles -- ii.Intellectual Property -- iii.Equity and Debt Securities -- III.Ownership, Possession and Legal Title -- A.Ownership -- i.What Type of Right is Ownership? -- ii.Joint Ownership -- B.Possession -- i.De Facto Possession -- ii.Legal Possession -- iii.Constructive Possession -- C.Legal Title -- i.Possessory Title -- ii.Documentary Title -- IV.Equitable Title under a Trust Note continued: A.What is a Trust? -- B.Creation of an Express Trust -- C.Uses of the Trust in Commercial Contexts -- V.Original Modes of Acquisition -- A.Legal Title -- B.Equitable Title -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Passage of Property under Sale of Goods Act 1979 -- A.Classification -- B.Sale of Specific Goods -- i.Rule 1 -- ii.Rules 2 and 3 -- iii.Rule 4 -- C.Unascertained Goods -- i.Rule 5 -- ii.Section 20A: Quasi-Specific Goods -- iii.Future Goods -- D.Reservation of the Right of Disposal -- III.Deed -- IV.Delivery -- A.Transferring Possession -- B.Intention -- V.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Exceptions to Nemo Dat -- A.Estoppel -- i.Estoppel by Representation of Authority to Sell, or of Ownership -- ii.Estoppel by Negligence -- iii.Other Estoppels -- B.Factors Act 1889 s 2 -- i.Sale by a Mercantile Agent -- ii.Pledge by a Mercantile Agent -- C.Voidable Title -- D.Sale under a Power of Sale -- E.Sale by a Seller or Buyer in Possession Note continued: i.Seller in Possession -- ii.Buyer in Possession -- F.Hire Purchase Act 1964 -- G.Reform -- III.Overreaching -- IV.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Statutory (Legal) Assignment -- A.What can be Assigned? -- B.Writing and Notice Requirements -- i.Writing Requirements -- ii.Notice -- C.Equity and Debt Securities -- D.IP Rights -- III.Equitable Assignment -- A.Joinder -- B.Requirements of Equitable Assignment -- i.Assignment of Debts: The Pre-Judicature Act Rules -- ii.The 'Every Efforts' Doctrine -- iii.The Relevance of Notice -- iv.The Relevance of Consideration -- IV.'Subject to Equities' and Priority Rules -- A.'Subject to Equities' -- B.Priorities -- V.Non-Assignable Choses in Action -- A.Non-Assignability in Law -- B.Non-Assignability by Contract -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Five Scenarios: When is Writing Required? -- A.The 'Plain Vanilla' Case -- B.Directions to the Trustee to Hold on Trust Note continued: C.Contracts for Valuable Consideration: Sales of Equitable Interests -- D.Express Sub-Trusts -- E.The Vandervell Saga -- III.Surrender v Disclaimer -- IV.Priorities -- V.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.What is a Negotiable Instrument? -- A.Examples of Negotiable Instrument -- i.Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes -- ii.Two Senses of Negotiation: Bills of Exchange and Bills of Lading -- B.Becoming a Negotiable Instrument -- III.Transfer and Operation of Bills of Exchange -- A.Transfer of a Bill of Exchange -- i.Modes of Transfer -- ii.Mere Holders of Bills of Exchange -- iii.Holders for Value -- iv.Holders in Due Course -- B.Liability and Enforcement -- i.Liability -- ii.Defences -- iii.Enforcement -- iv.Discharge -- IV.Negotiation of Bills of Lading -- V.Commercial Uses of Bills of Exchange -- A.Documentary and Negotiation Credits -- B.Electronic Bills of Exchange and Electronic Negotiation -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Void Transfers Note continued: III.Resulting Trusts -- A.Voluntary Conveyance and Purchase Money Trusts -- i.Presumption of Resulting Trust -- ii.Presumption of Advancement -- iii.Disallowing Reliance on the Presumptions: Illegality -- B.Automatic Resulting Trusts -- C.The Basis for the Resulting Trust -- i.Presumed Resulting Trusts -- ii.Automatic Resulting Trusts-Failure of Basis -- iii.Lack of Authority -- iv.Void Contracts: Westdeutsche Landes bank Girozentrale v Islington LBC -- v.Change of Position -- IV.Voidable Transfers -- A.Instances of Voidability -- i.Induced Flaws in the Claimant's Intention: Misrepresentation, Duress and Undue Influence -- ii.Mistake -- B.Bars to Rescission -- i.Restitutio in Integrum -- ii.Third Party Rights -- iii.Laches -- iv.Affirmation -- C.What Type of Interest is a Power? -- V.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Conversion -- A.What Property can be Converted? -- B.Acts Counting as Conversion -- C.Entitlement to Sue in Conversion -- D.Remedies Note continued: i.Damages for Loss -- ii.Exemplary Damages -- iii.Restitutionary Damages -- iv.Defences: Allowances for Improvements and Change of Position -- v.Delivery Up -- vi.Injunctions -- vii.Recaption: Self-Help Remedies -- III.Trespass to Goods -- A.Elements of Trespass -- B.Remedies -- IV.Replevin and Reversionary Injury -- V.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Tracing -- A.Common Law Tracing -- i.Physical Substitutions and Mixtures -- ii.Bank Accounts -- B.Equitable Tracing -- i.Mixtures-Innocent Victim against Fiduciary -- ii.Mixtures-Two Innocent Contributors -- iii.Overdrawn Bank Accounts -- C.Remedies -- i.At Law -- ii.In Equity -- D.Defences -- III.Proprietary Claims Contingent on Tracing -- A.The Basis of the Claim: Property or Unjust Enrichment -- B.The Unjust Factor -- IV.Subrogation -- V.Personal Claims -- A.Dishonest Assistance -- B.Knowing Receipt -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.What is Bailment? -- A.Prerequisites of Bailment Note continued: B.Relationship between the Bailor and Bailee -- i.Bailor's Duties -- ii.Bailee's Duties -- iii.Damages -- iv.Sub-Bailment on Terms -- C.Termination of Bailment -- D.Rights against Third Parties -- E.Involuntary Bailees and Finders -- III.Attornment -- IV.Commercial Uses of Bailment -- A.Hire Purchase Agreements -- B.Financial Leases -- C.Carriage of Goods by Sea -- V.Is Bailment Necessary? -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Function of Security and Quasi-Security -- III.The Types of Security Interest -- IV.The General Rules -- A.Attachment -- B.Perfection -- i.Companies Act 2006 Scheme -- ii.Financial Collateral -- iii.Bills of Sales Acts Scheme -- iv.Aircraft -- v.Intellectual Property -- C.Priorities -- i.General Rules -- ii.Two Special Cases: Tacking and Marshalling -- V.Quasi-Security Interests -- A.Retention of Title Clauses -- i.Products Clauses -- ii.Proceeds Clauses -- iii.Insolvency and Title Reservation -- iv.Criticism Note continued: B.Other Quasi-Security Interests -- i.Contractual Set-Off and Close Out Netting -- ii.Insolvency Set-Off -- iii.Equitable Transaction Set-off -- iv.Independent Set-Off -- VI.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Pledges -- A.Delivery -- B.Re-Delivery or Redemption -- C.Sale -- D.Pledgee's Relations with Third Parties -- III.Liens -- A.Lienholders' Rights against Third Parties -- B.Contractual Liens -- C.Common Law or Customary Liens -- D.Statutory Liens -- E.Equitable Liens -- i.Particular Cases of Liens: Purchasers and Unpaid Vendors -- ii.Particular Cases of Liens: Trustees' and Co-Owners' Liens -- iii.A General Principle -- IV.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.What is a Mortgage? -- A.Clogs and Fetters -- B.Legal Mortgages -- C.Equitable Mortgages -- D.Aircraft: International Interests -- III.Enforcement -- A.Foreclosure and Appropriation of Financial Collateral -- B.Sale -- i.Incidence of the Power of Sale Note continued: ii.Duties of the Mortgagee in Exercising the Power of Sale -- C.Receivership -- D.Possession -- E.Enforcement of Bills of Sale -- i.Current Law -- ii.Reform of Bills of Sale -- F.Enforcement of an International Interest -- IV.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Floating and Fixed Charges -- A.Determining whether a Charge is Fixed or Floating -- B.The Importance of the Distinction -- III.The Nature of the Floating Charge -- A.The Licence Theory -- B.The Defeasible Charge Theory -- C.Overreaching -- D.Power to Acquire a Persistent Right -- IV.Remedies of the Chargee on Default -- A.Administrative Receivership -- B.Administration -- V.Conclusion -- I.Introduction -- II.Reform in other Jurisdictions -- A.An Outline of the Article 9/PPSA System -- i.Should Land be Included? -- ii.In Substance and Deemed Security Interests -- iii.Attachment and Perfection -- iv.Priorities and 'Taking Free' -- v.Enforcement and the Relationship with Insolvency Note continued: vi.Cautionary Notes -- B.The International Influence of UCC Article 9 -- C.Prospects for the Abolition of the Floating Charge apart from a PPSA System -- III.Conclusion.

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