لایب سان

Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Figures......Page 16 Tables......Page 20 Preface......Page 21 Acknowledgments......Page 24 First astronomers......Page 27 Renaissance......Page 31 Telescopes, photography, electronics, and computers......Page 33 Non-optical astronomy......Page 34 Stars and nebulae......Page 36 Galaxies and the universe......Page 39 New horizons......Page 45 Problems......Page 47 2.1 Introduction......Page 48 Photons (electromagnetic waves)......Page 49 Neutrino and gravitational-wave astronomy......Page 50 Wavelength and frequency......Page 51 Photon energy......Page 52 Temperature......Page 54 Atmospheric absorption......Page 55 2.3 Electromagnetic frequency bands......Page 58 2.4 Photons and the atmosphere......Page 59 3.1 Introduction......Page 60 Mathematical sphere at “infinity”......Page 61 Celestial coordinate systems......Page 62 Equatorial coordinates......Page 63 Why equatorial coordinates?......Page 65 Galactic coordinates......Page 66 Ecliptic coordinate system......Page 69 Reference frames......Page 70 3.3 Solid angle on the celestial sphere......Page 71 Palomar, SRC, and ESO sky surveys......Page 74 Printed charts......Page 76 Catalogs of celestial objects......Page 77 Names of astronomical objects......Page 78 Stars......Page 79 Modern names (“telephone numbers”)......Page 80 3.2 Coordinates on a celestial sphere......Page 81 3.4 Surveys, charts and catalogs......Page 82 4 Gravity, celestial motions, and time......Page 83 4.2 Gravity – Newton to Einstein......Page 84 Horizon coordinate system......Page 86 Sun and dark-sky observations......Page 88 Parallax of star positions......Page 89 Stellar aberration......Page 91 Torque due to a ring of mass......Page 92 Calendar......Page 95 Proper motion......Page 96 Motion on celestial sphere......Page 97 Eclipses of the sun and moon......Page 98 “Orbits” of the moon and sun......Page 99 Total and partial solar eclipses......Page 100 The 18-year saros cycle......Page 101 Corona in x rays and visible light......Page 103 Planets......Page 105 Time according to the stars and sun......Page 106 Mean solar time......Page 107 Greenwich mean sidereal time (GMST) at 0 h UT......Page 109 Atomic time (TAI)......Page 110 Universal coordinated time (UTC) and leap seconds......Page 111 Terrestrial time (TT)......Page 112 Barycentric times......Page 114 Epochs for coordinate systems......Page 115 4.2 Gravity......Page 117 4.3 Apparent motions of stars......Page 119 4.4 Lunar and planet motions – eclipses......Page 120 4.5 Measures of time......Page 122 5.1 Introduction......Page 124 5.2 Information content of radiation......Page 125 5.3 Image formation......Page 126 Focal length and plate scale......Page 127 Aperture and deposited energy......Page 128 Telescope configurations......Page 130 Tubular and modulation collimators......Page 132 Multiple pinhole collimator......Page 133 Some real telescopes......Page 136 Meaning of a “beam”......Page 138 Point spread function......Page 140 Fraunhofer diffraction......Page 141 Radio resolution......Page 144 Isophase patches and speckles......Page 145 Speckle interferometry......Page 150 Sensing the wavefront shape......Page 151 Complete system......Page 152 5.5 Resolution enhancement......Page 155 6.1 Introduction......Page 156 Photomultiplier and photometry......Page 157 Proportional counter......Page 159 Charge-coupled device......Page 163 Structure of a CCD......Page 164 Readout of the image......Page 166 Utility in optical astronomy......Page 168 Adaptive imaging......Page 169 Utility in x-ray astronomy......Page 170 Plastic scintillator anticoincidence......Page 171 Spark chamber detection of electron–positron pair......Page 173 Energies and arrival directions......Page 174 BATSE experiment......Page 175 6.5 Statistics of measurements......Page 177 Statistical fluctuations – “noise”......Page 178 Poisson distribution......Page 179 Normal distribution......Page 181 Variance and standard deviation......Page 183 Measurement significance......Page 185 Statistical traps......Page 186 Propagation of errors......Page 187 Background subtraction......Page 188 Low and high background limits......Page 189 Bright and faint source observations......Page 190 Comparison to theory......Page 191 Finding parameters and checking hypotheses......Page 192 Least squares fit......Page 193 Chi square test......Page 194 6.3 Position-sensitive detectors......Page 198 6.5 Statistics of measurements......Page 199 7 Multiple telescope interferometry......Page 201 7.1 Introduction......Page 202 Principle of interferometry......Page 203 Transmission of radiation......Page 205 Reception......Page 207 Position of source......Page 208 North-Pole observation......Page 209 All-sky fringe pattern......Page 211 Summed waves......Page 214 Multiplied waves......Page 217 Signal processing......Page 219 Spatial frequencies......Page 220 Projected baseline......Page 222 Bins on the sky......Page 223 Cross-correlation......Page 225 Equal weighting of time intervals......Page 226 Principle of aperture synthesis......Page 227 Arbitrary sky brightness distribution......Page 229 Phase of visibility function......Page 231 Sky brightness......Page 232 Cleaning algorithms......Page 233 Multiple baselines......Page 234 Radio arrays......Page 235 Optical and x-ray interferometry......Page 238 7.2 Two-telescope interference......Page 239 7.3 Mapping the sky......Page 241 7.4 Arrays of telescopes......Page 243 8 Point-like and extended sources......Page 244 8.1 Introduction......Page 245 Spectral flux density......Page 246 Luminosity......Page 248 8.3 Astronomical magnitudes......Page 250 Magnitudes and fluxes......Page 251 Spectral color bands......Page 252 Conversion from magnitudes to SI units......Page 254 Color indices......Page 256 Absolute magnitudes – luminosity......Page 257 Bolometric magnitude......Page 258 Absolute bolometric magnitude and luminosity......Page 259 Specific intensity......Page 260 Concept of specific intensity......Page 261 Power received by antenna......Page 263 Average specific intensity......Page 264 Relation to specific intensity......Page 265 Specific intensity of pulsars......Page 266 Power emitted from a surface......Page 267 Equality of emitted and received intensity (B = I)......Page 268 Energy flow – names, symbols, and units......Page 271 Volume emissivity......Page 272 Relation to specific intensity......Page 273 Line-of-sight emissivity (power column density)......Page 275 8.3 Astronomical magnitudes......Page 276 8.4 Resolved “diffuse” sources......Page 277 9 Properties and distances of celestial objects......Page 279 9.2 Luminosities......Page 280 Earth and sun......Page 282 Moon......Page 283 Spiral galaxies and the Galaxy......Page 284 Clusters of galaxies and the virial theorem......Page 285 Thermal and non-thermal radiation......Page 286 Color temperature......Page 287 Excitation temperature......Page 288 Ionization temperature......Page 289 Saha equation......Page 290 Distance ladder......Page 291 Moon, earth, and sun......Page 293 Trigonometric parallax......Page 295 Convergence......Page 296 Distance to a cluster star......Page 298 Secular parallax......Page 299 Statistical parallax......Page 301 Standard candles......Page 302 Spectroscopic classification......Page 303 Galactic center and Crab nebula distances......Page 304 Cepheid and RR Lyrae variables......Page 305 Expanding universe......Page 308 Value of Hubble constant......Page 309 Redshift......Page 310 Extragalactic “standard candles”......Page 311 Luminosity functions......Page 312 Supernovae......Page 313 Surface brightness fluctuations......Page 314 Ultimate goals......Page 318 9.1 Introduction......Page 320 9.3 Masses......Page 321 9.5 Distances and sizes......Page 322 10.1 Introduction......Page 324 Rayleigh scattering......Page 326 Thomson scattering......Page 327 Compton scattering......Page 328 Photon absorption in the CMB......Page 329 Emission nebulae......Page 330 Grains in the interstellar medium......Page 332 Extinction coefficient......Page 334 Extragalactic sources......Page 335 Color excess (reddening)......Page 336 Frequency dependence......Page 337 Dust–hydrogen association......Page 338 Cross section as a target......Page 340 Exponential absorption......Page 342 Mass units and opacity......Page 343 Optical depth......Page 344 Cross section and extinction coefficient......Page 345 Photoelectric effect......Page 347 Mass fractions......Page 349 Effective cross section......Page 350 Survival distances......Page 352 Astronomy through gases......Page 354 10.3 Extinction of starlight......Page 356 10.5 Photoelectric absorption in the interstellar medium......Page 357 11.1 Introduction......Page 359 Energy and number spectra......Page 360 Spectral reference band......Page 362 Frequency and wavelength......Page 363 Spectral bin widths......Page 364 Free–bound, bound–free and free–free transitions......Page 365 Radiation from a hot plasma......Page 366 Plasma parameters determined......Page 367 Shocks in supernova remnants, stellar coronae, H II regions......Page 369 Synchrotron radiation......Page 370 Spectrum......Page 374 Radio spectra and antenna temperature......Page 375 Cosmic microwave background......Page 376 Stars......Page 377 11.4 Spectral lines......Page 380 Origin of spectral lines......Page 381 Stars and nebulae......Page 383 Permitted and forbidden lines......Page 384 Equivalent width......Page 385 Damping and thermal profiles......Page 387 Saturation and the curve of growth......Page 390 Radiative transfer equation (RTE)......Page 391 Intensity differentials......Page 392 Intensity variation with optical depth......Page 393 Local thermodynamic equilibrium......Page 394 Solution of the RTE......Page 395 Limiting cases......Page 397 11.3 Continuum spectra......Page 401 11.4 Spectral lines......Page 402 11.5 Formation of spectral lines (radiative transfer)......Page 403 12 Astronomy beyond photons......Page 404 Neutrinos from the sun......Page 405 Neutrino–chlorine conversions......Page 408 Argon decay......Page 409 Solar neutrino problem......Page 410 Super-Kamiokande......Page 411 Cerenkov radiation......Page 412 Neutrino oscillations and more......Page 413 12.3 Cosmic ray observatories......Page 414 Nuclear component......Page 415 Muon component......Page 416 Extensive air showers......Page 418 Cerenkov radiation and fluorescence......Page 420 Detection of EAS......Page 421 Fly’s Eye......Page 422 Auger project......Page 423 Gamma-ray primaries – TeV and EeV astronomy......Page 424 Orbiting neutron stars......Page 425 Energy loss rate......Page 426 Distortion of space......Page 428 Quadrupole radiation......Page 429 Variable quadrupole moment......Page 431 Detection in Virgo cluster......Page 433 Resonant bars......Page 434 Laser interferometers......Page 435 Multiple antennas......Page 436 12.2 Neutrino observatories......Page 437 12.3 Cosmic ray observatories......Page 438 12.4 Gravitational-wave observatories......Page 439 Credits and further reading......Page 441 General astrophysics texts for science majors......Page 443 Appendix Units, symbols, and values......Page 444 Index......Page 448

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